Salt - Wikipedia. Table salt or common salt is a mineral composed primarily of sodium chloride (Na. Cl), a chemical compound belonging to the larger class of salts; salt in its natural form as a crystalline mineral is known as rock salt or halite. Salt is present in vast quantities in seawater, where it is the main mineral constituent. The open ocean has about 3. Salt is essential for life in general, and saltiness is one of the basic human tastes. The tissues of animals contain larger quantities of salt than do plant tissues. Yoko Spa Milk Salt I had been curious about Yoko Spa Milk Salt since long ago. Until last week I went to a shopping center and I found it! It was the first time I found Yoko bath salt being sold in public store. I was a bit surprised knowing there is a distributor in. Mainly on cereals and vegetable matter, need to supplement their diet with salt. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not. This bone broth recipe is a classic and one you'll want to keep for future reference. Below I've also included tips on how to make this recipe using a slow cooker or different types of bones, such as chicken. Perhaps the most important caveat when making. Plant powered nutrition products that provide daily and targeted healthy solutions. Shop Now at Arbonne.com. Consultant Name Your Independent Consultant MY PROFILE Your Account English Shop Away. Plant powered nutrition products that provide daily and targeted healthy solutions. Shop Now at Arbonne.com. Consultant Name Your Independent Consultant MY PROFILE Your Account English Shop Away Fill Your Bag Skincare.
Salt is one of the oldest and most ubiquitous food seasonings, and salting is an important method of food preservation. Some of the earliest evidence of salt processing dates to around 8,0. Romania were boiling spring water to extract the salts; a salt- works in China dates to approximately the same period. Salt was also prized by the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites, Egyptians, and the Indians. Salt became an important article of trade and was transported by boat across the Mediterranean Sea, along specially built salt roads, and across the Sahara in camel caravans. The scarcity and universal need for salt has led nations to go to war over it and use it to raise tax revenues. Salt is used in religious ceremonies and has other cultural significance. Salt is processed from salt mines, or by the evaporation of seawater (sea salt) or mineral- rich spring water in shallow pools. Its major industrial products are caustic soda and chlorine, and is used in many industrial processes including the manufacture of polyvinyl chloride, plastics, paper pulp and many other products. Of the annual global production of around two hundred million tonnes of salt, only about 6% is used for human consumption. Other uses include water conditioning processes, de- icing highways, and agricultural use. Edible salt is sold in forms such as sea salt and table salt which usually contains an anti- caking agent and may be iodised to prevent iodine deficiency. As well as its use in cooking and at the table, salt is present in many processed foods. Sodium is an essential nutrient for human health via its role as an electrolyte and osmotic solute. Such health effects of salt have long been studied. Accordingly, numerous world health associations and experts in developed countries recommend reducing consumption of popular salty foods. The Natron Valley was a key region that supported the Egyptian Empire to its north, because it supplied it with a kind of salt that came to be called by its name, natron. Even before this, what is now thought to have been the first city in Europe is Solnitsata, in Bulgaria, which was a salt mine, providing the area now known as the Balkans with salt since 5. BC. A very ancient salt- works operation has been discovered at the Poiana Slatinei archaeological site next to a salt spring in Lunca, Neam. Evidence indicates that Neolithic people of the Precucuteni Culture were boiling the salt- laden spring water through the process of briquetage to extract the salt as far back as 6. BC. The salt extracted from this operation may have had a direct correlation to the rapid growth of this society's population soon after its initial production began. It was of high value to the ancient Hebrews, the Greeks, the Romans, the Byzantines, the Hittites and other peoples of antiquity. In the Middle East, salt was used to ceremonially seal an agreement, and the ancient Hebrews made a . The Bible tells the story of King Abimelech who was ordered by God to do this at Shechem. In the early years of the Roman Empire, roads such as the Via Salaria were built for the transportation of salt from the salt pans of Ostia to the capital. From about 2. 80. BC, the Egyptians began exporting salt fish to the Phoenicians in return for Lebanon cedar, glass and the dye Tyrian purple; the Phoenicians traded Egyptian salt fish and salt from North Africa throughout their Mediterranean trade empire. In Africa, salt was used as currency south of the Sahara, and slabs of rock salt were used as coins in Abyssinia. The Tuareg have traditionally maintained routes across the Sahara especially for the transportation of salt by Azalai (salt caravans). The caravans still cross the desert from southern Niger to Bilma, although much of the trade now takes place by truck. Each camel takes two bales of fodder and two of trade goods northwards and returns laden with salt pillars and dates. This was gradually displaced by the salt the white men brought in sacks, so that the coast natives lost their previous profits; as of the author's writing in 1. Salzach literally means . Around 4. 00 BC, the townsfolk, who had previously used pickaxes and shovels, began open pan salt making. During the first millennium BC, Celtic communities grew rich trading salt and salted meat to Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome in exchange for wine and other luxuries. The word salary comes from the Latin word for salt. The reason for this is unknown; a persistent modern claim that the Roman Legions were sometimes paid in salt is baseless. Venice fought and won a war with Genoa over the product, and it played an important part in the American Revolution. Cities on overland trade routes grew rich by levying duties. The voyages of Christopher Columbus are said to have been financed from salt production in southern Spain, and the oppressive salt tax in France was one of the causes of the French Revolution. After being repealed, this tax was reimposed by Napoleon when he became emperor to pay for his foreign wars, and was not finally abolished until 1. This civil disobedience inspired millions of common people, and elevated the Indian independence movement from an elitist movement to a national struggle. Chemistry. Sea salt and freshly mined salt (much of which is sea salt from prehistoric seas) also contain small amounts of trace elements (which in these small amounts are generally good for plant and animal health). Mined salt is often refined in the production of table salt; it is dissolved in water, purified via precipitation of other minerals out of solution, and re- evaporated. During this same refining process it is often also iodized. Salt crystals are translucent and cubic in shape; they normally appear white but impurities may give them a blue or purple tinge. The molar mass of salt is 5. Its density is 2. When dissolved in water it separates into Na+ and Cl. Solutions of sodium chloride have very different properties from those of pure water; the freezing point is . Salt is also an ingredient in many manufactured foodstuffs. Table salt is a refined salt containing about 9. Iodized salt, containing potassium iodide, is widely available. Some people put a desiccant, such as a few grains of uncooked rice. The identities and amounts of additives vary widely from country to country. Iodine is an important micronutrient for humans, and a deficiency of the element can cause lowered production of thyroxine (hypothyroidism) and enlargement of the thyroid gland (endemic goitre) in adults or cretinism in children. Iodized salt has been used to correct these conditions since 1. A small amount of dextrose may also be added to stabilize the iodine. In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends . US iodized salt contains 4. The additive is considered safe for human consumption. Both the European Union and the United States Food and Drug Administration permitted the use of aluminium in the latter two compounds. The latter alleviates iron deficiency anaemia, which interferes with the mental development of an estimated 4. A typical iron source is ferrous fumarate. Another additive, especially important for pregnant women, is folic acid (vitamin B9), which gives the table salt a yellow color. Folic acid helps prevent neural tube defects and anaemia, which affect young mothers, especially in developing countries. A lack of fluorine in the diet is the cause of a greatly increased incidence of dental caries. Fluoride salts can be added to table salt with the goal of reducing tooth decay, especially in countries that have not benefited from fluoridated toothpastes and fluoridated water. The practice is more common in some European countries where water fluoridation is not carried out. In France, 3. 5% of the table salt sold contains added sodium fluoride. Other kinds. The calcium and magnesium salts confer a faintly bitter overtone, and they make unrefined sea salt hygroscopic (i. Algal products contribute a mildly . Sediments, the proportion of which varies with the source, give the salt a dull grey appearance. Since taste and aroma compounds are often detectable by humans in minute concentrations, sea salt may have a more complex flavor than pure sodium chloride when sprinkled on top of food. When salt is added during cooking however, these flavors would likely be overwhelmed by those of the food ingredients. The refined salt industry cites scientific studies saying that raw sea and rock salts do not contain enough iodine salts to prevent iodine deficiency diseases. Fleur de sel, a natural sea salt from the surface of evaporating brine in salt pans, has a unique flavour varying with the region from which it is produced. In traditional Korean cuisine, so- called . This product absorbs minerals from the bamboo and the mud, and has been claimed to increase the anticlastogenic and antimutagenic properties of doenjang (a fermented bean paste). Kosher salt, though refined, contains no iodine and has a much larger grain size than most refined salts. This can give it different properties when used in cooking, and can be useful for preparing kosher meat. Some kosher salt has been certified to meet kosher requirements by a hechsher, but this is not true for all products labelled as kosher salt. Gourmet salts may be used for specific tastes. Mapple's Blog: Yoko Spa Milk Salt. So here was what I did: I rub it on my wet skin, left it about three minutes, rinse it off and continued with body wash. There are a lot of girls say that the product works wonder to smooth skin, but I found it not very well acted. It stung and left red rash on my skin. Besides, there’s also a little hassle about the zip- locker packaging. Once I pour the salt onto my hand, the rest of the salt grains stuck on the sidelines of the zip locker. It makes the container can’t be closed again. I think the zip- locker packaging design is useless. Finally I read a review from Onik who also use Yoko Bath Salt. Then I asked her if I did it wrong. Onik told me that I should apply it instead of rub it and leave it for three minutes before rinsing. She warned me not to scrub since it will sting. So I immediately practiced as she taught that afternoon, and the result is good! Though I didn’t rub it as when I’m wearing scrub, it did make my skin become smooth and moist. Besides, the moist feel is long lasting, longer than if I use my body scrubs. All in all, I like this bath salt and I will repurchase it. I’ll buy the black one next time. Note: I found an article tells that bath salts is bad for people with high blood pressure. If you aim to use it and you have hypertension, you better consult with your doctor first.
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Liquid diets are a versatile medium, which allows for the addition of alcohol, medications and test compounds Contact us for more information Nutritional. Sometimes the full liquid diet is a step between a clear liquid diet back to your regular diet. What you can eat and Drink. Could This Liquid Replace Food? The full liquid diet is often used as a step between a clear liquid diet and a regular diet, for example, after surgery or fasting. It may also be used after certain. Is a Liquid Diet Healthy? For the busy adult trying to stay healthy or drop a few. But do they really provide a healthy alternative to. To discuss the. benefits and risks of liquid diets, we turned to Diana Sugiuchi, a registered. Baltimore who is also the founder of Nourish Family Nutrition and Vertical Drop Nutrition. Liquid diets have become a pretty big health fad in recent years. What. would you say started this craze? Diana Sugiuchi: I. First, people are increasingly busy. People feel that it is. Second, people. have a genuine desire to get the right mix of nutrients and reach a healthy. There is so much information and misinformation on the Internet about. Liquid diets are nutritionally analyzed, portion. And because they are manufactured by companies, there. What are the most popular liquid diets on the market? Sugiuchi: There. are the weight loss standbys, like Slim- Fast and Herbalife. Some liquid. supplements that used to be used mostly in hospitals to help people gain or. Ensure, are now marketing themselves as helping. The one that has been receiving the most. Soylent, which is marketed as a liquid diet that can be used in. What are most people looking for when they start a liquid diet? Sugiuchi: People. I believe that people want a guarantee that what they are putting in. Do certain people benefit more from liquid diets than others? Sugiuchi: People. Health Nutrition News reviews common liquid diet plans and suggests which plans are the best for long term weight loss goals and sustainability. One specific liquid diet doesn't exist. How to Lose Weight Fast With the Liquid Diet. Liquid Diets pros and cons - do liquid diets, protein drinks or meal replacement shakes really help you burn fat and keep it off? If you are. looking to jumpstart weight loss, a couple days on a liquid diet will not hurt. Are liquid diets more effective than other kinds of diets? Sugiuchi: Any. diet where you are taking in fewer calories than you are burning will result in. But if you haven’t made lifestyle changes, you will not keep the. What are the benefits of liquid diets? Sugiuchi: The. convenience and regulating calories. And what about the risks? Sugiuchi: These. supplements are not regulated like food. Some of them have harmful ingredients. When used long term. Our bodies were designed to chew and digest whole food, and if there. If you. don’t make healthy changes in your diet for the long term, you will not be. What difference is there in the way the body absorbs calories through. Sugiuchi: Our. bodies don’t register the calories that we drink in the same way that . For example, if you drink something that. This can lead to taking in. Why does the body not register calories the same way? Is there a way around. Sugiuchi: Eating. The aroma of food, the act of. So which liquid diets are healthy? And how long should one stay on the. Sugiuchi: I would. Based on. experience, most people will not want to stay on a liquid diet for any longer. If you are going to choose a supplement for a liquid diet, look for. Which liquid diets definitely aren't healthy? Sugiuchi: Any. liquid that has added caffeine or herbs. These can have interactions, and the. What questions should a person ask a nutritionist when considering going on. Sugiuchi: Ask a. nutritionist if the supplement you are considering will meet 1. Look for added caffeine or herbs that don’t need to be in. You should also ask if this is something that would be helpful to you. How effective are they? And what are the. Sugiuchi: Juice. cleanses can backfire. Not only are these low in calories, but they are very. Because of this, much of the weight loss comes from loss of. There is nothing magical about juice that would help our. And the very low calories can actually cause metabolism. Just like any liquid. SHOP v. 3 MU com erro algu. Whey Protein; Pre-Workout. Diet Plans; Find a Supplement Plan; Apps. There was an authentication error. Shop; about; chasing color; e r r o. Home; shop; about; chasing color; Filter; All; Clothing; Kimonos; Robes. Guarantee Contact Shipping and payment Borner Worldwide Information. Shop; v1-skinny-smoothie; v3 diet pills; V3 Diet Pills Voyager Health Weight Loss Complex Order Now Free Shipping; V3 diet pills. V3 Max diet pills, V3 Original. Now I have v3.3.6 for sj5000+ instead of v1.6. 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If you're trying to lose weight, there is one simple change that can make a big difference. You can stop drinking soda.
Maybe you've already been told that you can lose weight if you quit drinking soda. Or maybe you've tried to cut back on soda and found that the sugary- fizz addiction is not an easy habit to break. You might be tempted to keep it in your diet and cut calories elsewhere. Not only are most of the beverages high in sugar and calories, but we also have a habit of drinking them mindlessly. The calories in Coke, for example, are fairly straightforward if you drink a single can. There are 1. 40 calories and 3. That means Coca- cola provides about 1. But, if you're a fan of the super- sized drinks that you buy in fast food restaurants or convenience stores, you can easily consume several hundred calories in a single sitting, without ever eating any food! Your Total Soda Calories Per Year. Have you ever calculated the number of soda calories that you consume? A few simple math calculations reveal the truth. Have you ever thought about the amount of money you would save if you cut out the trip to the convenience mart or fast food restaurant? Again, that doesn't seem like a lot of money. But that nominal cost adds up to $7. Wouldn't it be great to have that money to spend on other things? Changes to Your Body When You Stop Drinking Soda. Health experts recommend that cutting back on sweetened, caffeinated beverages is an easy way to improve your health. Not only do you reduce your total sugar intake, but you may enjoy other health benefits as well. Better sleep. Have you ever wondered how much weight you could lose if you quit your soda habit? Weight Loss When You Stop Drinking Soda. So how much weight can you lose when? These numbers might boost your motivation to cut back. Each calculation assumes that you don't replace soda calories with other food or beverage calories. If you replace your daily Double Gulp (5. If you replace your daily Super Big Gulp (4. If you replace your daily Big Gulp (3. If you replace your daily Gulp (2. If you replace your daily medium Coca- Cola at Mc. Donalds (1. 6 oz), you reduce your annual calorie intake by 7. If you replace your daily 1. Coke with water every day, you save 5. Of course, to lose the amount of weight listed in the calculations, you need to be sure that you don't replace your soda calories with extra calories from food or other beverages. Which leads many dieters to consider diet sodas to lose weight. Is Diet Soda Better for Weight Loss? Replacing your regular soda with a diet drink can be a tricky fix. In fact, you might be replacing one kind of addiction for another. Woman Loses 112 Pounds After Giving Up Soda This Woman Proves Ditching Soda Can Lead to Dramatic Weight Loss. Can You Lose Body Fat by Stopping Drinking Soda? Soda contributes to weight gain with empty calories. Have you ever wondered how much weight you could lose if you quit your soda habit? Weight Loss When You Stop Drinking Soda. Studies have shown that when we eat sweet foods, whether they are naturally or artificially sweetened, our appetites increase. So if you replace your regular pop with a diet variety you might be eliminating calories only to replace them again when your sugar craving kicks in. And experts who study artificial sweeteners recommend that it's best to avoid them if possible, especially if you are trying to lose weight. How to Stop Drinking Soda. So how do you kick the soda habit? Switching to a diet pop might be the most gentle step down if you are used to having a full calorie soda during the day. Gradually increase your water intake and decrease the soda. Not a huge fan of water? There are no calories in club soda, so if you like the fizz of soda simply throw a few berries into a bubbly glass of water. Or flavor your water with citrus or herbs. It becomes easier to switch to an all- water habit once you find a different beverage to enjoy. With just a few simple changes, you can stop drinking soda to lose weight. Sugar substitutes: Health controversy over perceived benefits. Oct- Dec; 2(4): 2. Last reviewed April 2. Vartanian LR, Schwartz MB, Brownell KD. Effects of Soft Drink Consumption on Nutrition and Health: A Systematic Review and Meta- Analysis.. Valid only for product(s)/quantity indicated. You pay sales tax, if any. Void if altered, copied, exchanged, sold or transferred. RETAILER: Redeem on terms stated for consumer. Coupon Redemption Policy, available at www. Redeemable only in USA (incl. Void where taxed, restricted or prohibited by law. Mail coupon to: Mars Veterinary 1. NCH Marketing Services, P. O. Box 8. 80. 00. El Paso, TX 8. 85. See ratings and reviews for Dr. Kevin Mccormick, Geriatrician in Rochester, New York. Image 1 ID; High Blood Pressure: 75.00%: Kevin Mccormick in Rochester, New York. The Paperback of the My Brother's Keeper by Patricia McCormick at Barnes & Noble. FREE Shipping on $25 or. 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Dancing on Ice favourite Ray Quinn has revealed how a holiday snap inspired him to shed two stone in two months for the ITV show. The actor realised he looked more tum- ba than rumba as he sported a huge beer belly on his sunshine break last year. Gorging on curries and six cans of beer a night on theatre tours had sent the 5ft 9in star. I hated that pot belly. When I got the call from Dancing on Ice I knew I would never have had the stamina to do 1. I had to make a change. It really bloated me out. But all the hard work since then has been worth it. I feel and look so much better.. Discussion in 'Movies, Music and TV' started by Starlight, 21 December 2008 Social URL. Post New Thread Find New. Diet: Weight Watchers. Dancing On Ice's Ray Quinn has been confirmed for a run as Danny Zuko in the West End production. Quinn, who has already scored a perfect 30 marks from the. Dancing On Ice star Ray Quinn lost a whopping 2 stone in 2. Perfect since I might not have time for the gym in the next two. Singer Quinn wins Dancing on Ice. Former X Factor finalist Ray Quinn has won ITV1's Dancing On Ice final after. Quinn received perfect scores of 30 in his two. Almost 30; Ice; Watches. 2014 Week Week 9 Perfect 40 Hayley Tamaddon Dancing On Ice Ice 2014 Watches. Ray Quinn - Malaguena #DOI. Dancing on Ice is a British television show presented by Phillip Schofield. Suzanne Shaw received the perfect score of 30 for the third time. Generalised tonic-clonic seizures can cause injury from drowning, motor vehicle. Of those women, only two had received preconception. Preconception & Pregnancy. I think that's a bit of an overstatement but it seems pretty obvious that eating a healthy diet is a cornerstone of. Substances to limit or avoid in preconception and pregnancy. This article is part of our. Caffeine is also a diuretic meaning that it increases the loss of vital nutrients from the body, impacting on overall nutritional status. Whilst you are planning to become pregnant and when pregnancy occurs, caffeine intake should not exceed 2. Beverage/food. Amount equivalent to 2. Instant coffee. 2 cups/day. Filter coffee. 1 cup/day. Black tea. 2 mugs/day. Green tea. 4 mugs/day. 2020 Topics and Objectives . Select a topic area from the list below to get started. Substances to limit or avoid in preconception and pregnancy. By Baby Hints & Tips on October 03. Pregnancy & preconception (6) Stress relief (8) Superfoods (6). Are we really drowning in a sea of grog? 479 views 3 min to read. 3 easy hacks for a healthy diet 06 February. Chocolate bar. 4 small bars. Energy drinks are also high in caffeine, among other potentially harmful substances and should be avoided during pre- conception care and pregnancy altogether. Remove toxins and potentially harmful substances from your diet, lifestyle and environment. Alcohol. Due to the differing results of relevant studies and also the differing effects alcohol has on each individual, I don. Always check the label if you re not sure. These artificial sugars have some harmful effects in the body and their safety has not been tested for pregnant women and their babies. They are designated a number in a bracket on the ingredient list so avoid foods containing these artificial sweeteners. Especially avoid aspartame (9. It affects the health and maturation of the ovum and is associated with low- birth weight and pre- term babies and many associated complications during pregnancy, birth and post- natal period. Stress. Relaxation, a sufficient amount of restful sleep and exercise should are all recommended during preconception and pregnancy to reduce stress, affecting the mother both physically and mentally, with fertility, the outcome of the pregnancy and the wellbeing of the unborn baby all possible consequences of high stress and associated results within the body.< < PREVIOUS. Preconception Deception. It is advisable to have preconception epilepsy specialist assessment. The continuum of care from preconception counselling. Preconception counselling, including diet and exercise advice. To see all her articles, click here. The information in this article is intended as a guide only for women who are planning to conceive or are pregnant and are in general good health. Women with poor nutrition and/or underlying health conditions, especially those directly linked to subfertility, such as Polycystic Ovarian syndrome (PCOS) and obesity, may require additional nutrition, dietary recommendations and advice from a health professional when planning to conceive. The ethics of using genetic engineering for sex selection. There has been intense debate regarding whether it is ethical to use new reproductive technologies for the purpose of selecting the sex of one’s child. Those against it have argued that sex selection is akin to “playing God”, by interfering with the natural process of reproduction. It is also seen as harmful to children, because it treats them as a means to one’s whims; 1 and harmful to women because, in some countries, there is a bias in favour of having male offspring and sex selection can contribute to this bias. In response to these charges, advocates of sex selection have argued that sex selection can be used for good reasons such as family balancing. Historically, sex selection has been practiced more or less successfully and in a number of ways. The Greeks, for example, thought that tying off the left testicle would produce a male because the male determining sperm were derived from the right testicle. The Jewish tradition held the view that “When the woman emits her semen before the man, the child will be a boy. Otherwise, it will be a girl.”1. Various other methods based on the positioning and timing of the intercourse or special diets have also been proposed. For example, some believe that superficial penetration and face to face intercourse are more likely to produce a female. Others believe that foods high in sodium and potassium such as bananas, cherries, grapes, oranges, peaches, melons, broad beans, sprouts, celery, tomatoes, or sweetcorn tend to favour a male. I shall not enter into the debate here regarding whether sex selection is generally permissible. It seems to me though that if someone wants to eat more bananas so that she would be more likely to have a son, there would be little ethical objection against her doing so. However, even if sex selection were generally ethically permissible, it does not follow that all methods of sex selection are ethically permissible. An obvious example is infanticide. Child's Healthcare, Speech & Hearing. You will find informative pieces on rescuing drowning child, fire safety. Baby's Diet; Child's Healthcare; Child Development; Pre-Schools. Planning for pregnancy, pregnant or have a new baby? Birth has the most accurate and comprehensive week by week pregnancy guide, ask a midwife and all baby care needs. Parents can certainly use this method to have children of the desired sex, but it is clearly not ethical. Hence, it is important to evaluate the ethics of new reproductive technologies on a case by case basis. A number of such new technologies have been employed in recent years. The most widely discussed one is preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGD), because it can be 1. PGD was developed for patients who were at risk of having children with serious genetic disorders such as haemophilia. In the case of sex selection, it works as follows: A woman is given medicine (gonadotropins) so that she would superovulate—that is, produce many eggs. Once the eggs are mature (as determined by ultrasound scans), these eggs are collected. The eggs are then fertilised in the in vitro fertilisation lab. On the third day (when the healthy embryos divide to form eight cell embryos), these embryos are biopsied to determine their sex (and whether they have genetic diseases). The normal embryo with the desired sex is then transferred into the uterus. The other embryos are typically discarded. As one can see, PGD can be 1. For this reason, many are attracted to employing this method of sex selection. However, a number of people object to this method on the grounds that it is akin to infanticide, which is also 1. The reason is that they believe that an embryo is a person. In ethics, “persons” is shorthand for those beings to which we owe the weightiest moral obligations; they are often also called rightholders. Persons typically have a right to life, which means that they have at least some immunity against attack by others. They also have a right to autonomy, which means that they should be the authors of their own lives, and that they should be free to pursue what they regard as a good life, as long as they do not interfere with other persons’ pursuit. Persons may also have a right to aid in certain circumstances. For example, if a person is drowning and it would cost me little effort to save this person, then I have an obligation to save the person. If embryos are persons, then in effect, PGD is creating a number of persons and destroying the “wrong gendered” persons. The concern that PGD destroys persons is valid of course only if one regards an embryo as being a person. Indeed, a number of writers have defended PGD as a viable, ethical option for sex selection, supposing that the embryo is not a person. Also, if instead of destroying the leftover embryos, these embryos are donated to other couples and brought to term, then the concern that PGD destroys embryos would largely be gone. It is not my purpose here to evaluate the ethics of PGD or to discuss the moral status of the embryo. Here I would like to consider another possibility, that one can avoid the issue about the moral status of the embryo altogether by using genetic engineering for sex selection. Advances in genetic technologies have meant that it is possible directly to alter a person’s genes. If one could alter the sex genes of an embryo directly, this may obviate the need to create and destroy “wrong gendered” embryos. In this paper, I would like to examine this hypothetical proposal. I shall argue that those who regard embryos as persons—let us call them “embryoists”—are unlikely to be impressed by this method, but for different reasons. THE ETHICS OF USING GENETIC ENGINEERING FOR SEX SELECTIONAs far as I know, no one has tried to use genetic engineering for sex selection. But given the rapid advances in the human genome project and genetic engineering generally, it seems that its possibility is not remote. How would this method work? Genetic engineering involves putting the desired “new” gene into a little virus- like organism, which is then allowed to get into the target cell and insert the new gene into the cell along with the “old” genes. There are two kinds of genetic engineering: somatic and germline. Somatic engineering targets the genes in specific organs and tissues of the body of a single existing person without affecting genes in their eggs or sperm. Germline engineering targets the genes in eggs, sperm, or very early embryos. A way of using genetic engineering for sex selection is then to put the “gendered” genes of the desired sex in a virus- like organism and use germline engineering to alter the sex of an embryo. Assuming that one can perform such modification safely, would this method be more ethical? Although this method would avoid the problem of killing persons, embryoists are not going to be persuaded. The reason is that if an embryo is a person, then it could be argued that this method interferes with a person’s autonomy without the person’s consent. The idea here is as follows: an implication of a person’s having a right to autonomy is that if someone wants to do something that may interfere with that person’s pursuit of a good life, that the person’s consent is typically necessary. There are circumstances when such consent might not be necessary—for example, in cases where the benefit to the person would be really great, such as when their life would be saved. Indeed, suppose a person is unconscious and needs a certain operation in order to survive, a doctor may justifiably perform such an operation without the person’s consent, on the grounds that it is a life saving medical operation. But these life saving situations aside, consent is typically necessary. Essentially, changing the sex of the embryo through genetic engineering is performing a sex change operation on the embryo. Typically, to perform such an identity altering operation on a person, the person’s consent is required. The reason is that such an operation is typically not a life saving one. Indeed, a doctor would not be permitted to perform a sex change operation without consent. And even if someone were not able to consent, it is generally agreed that others cannot consent on their behalf for such non- health related treatments. If one believes that the embryo is a person and therefore has a right to autonomy, then, as with the case above, it seems that changing the sex of the embryo would also require the embryo’s consent. As the embryo is not able to consent, but given that this operation is not a life- saving medical operation, it seems that others should not be permitted to consent on the embryo’s behalf. THE POWER AND LIMITS OF PARENTAL AUTONOMYSomeone might point out though that parents often justifiably act on their children’s behalf without their children’s consent, at least in non- health related cases. For example, parents often decide how their children should be educated, what clothes their children should wear, whether their children should play the piano or football, and so on, without their children’s consent. As we grant parents much power in shaping the social identity of a child, why should parents not be permitted to shape the genetic identity of a child—in particular, to alter the sex of an embryo without the embryo’s consent? One thing to note is that parents actually do not have total power over the social identity of their children, whereas they would in the case of the genetic identity, assuming that genetic engineering is feasible. Indeed, from very early on, infants exhibit preferences for food, clothing, sleep schedules, and so on, and have means to resist parental preferences, should their own preferences conflict with those of the parents. One cannot say the same of embryos. Secondly, it seems that one needs to distinguish between non- health related decisions affecting a person that are reversible versus those that are irreversible. When parents make non- health related, lifestyle decisions regarding how their children should be educated, how they should dress, and so on, these are all decisions that are reversible—a child can later, in adulthood, choose alternatives. As such, these decisions limit but do not deprive a child of his autonomy. |
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July 2017
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